February 2018

Vaisheshika Philosophy

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The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and pluralist in nature. The basis of the school’s philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms.

The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the Vaisheshika Sutra of Kaṇada (or Kaṇabhaksha or Kashyapa). This treatise is divided into ten books. The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories (although Vaisheshika only accepted perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).

The Vaisheshika school attempts to identify, inventory, and classify the entities and their relations that present themselves to human perceptions. It lists six categories of being (padarthas), to which was later added a seventh. These are:

Dravya

Dravya, or substance, the substratum that exists independently of all other categories, and the material cause of all compound things produced from it. Dravyas are nine in number: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, spirit, and mind.

Guna

Guna, or quality, which in turn is subdivided into 24 species.

Karma

Karma, or action. Both guna and karma inhere within dravya and cannot exist independently of it.

Samanya

Samanya, or genus, which denotes characteristic similarities that allow two or more objects to be classed together.

Vishesha

Vishesha, or specific difference, which singles out an individual of that class.

Samavaya

Samavaya, or inherence, which indicates things inseparably connected.

Abhava

To these six was later added abhava, nonexistence or absence. Though negative in content, the impression it makes is positive; one has a perception of an absence where one misses something. Four such absences are recognized: previous absence, as of a new product; later absence, as of a destroyed object; total absence, as of colour in the wind; and reciprocal absence, as of a jar and a cloth, neither of which is the other.

The Vaisheshika system holds that the smallest, indivisible, indestructible part of the world is an atom (anu). All physical things are a combination of the atoms of earth, water, fire, and air. Inactive and motionless in themselves, the atoms are put into motion by God’s will, through the unseen forces of moral merit and demerit.

Nyaya Philosophy

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The Nyaya school was founded by Gautama with his Nyaya-sutra, but evolved greatly after that.  The Nyaya school’s chief concern was epistemology. What is correct thinking, and how can we come to know reality? Only when we know the answers to these questions can we achieve liberation.

How do we test if what we “know” corresponds to reality?

The Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Jaina, and Buddhist schools said that true knowledge led to success in practical activity, while false knowledge led to failure and disappointment.

Nyaya: Epistemology

According to Nyaya, there were four valid sources of knowledge — perception, inference, comparison, and testimony

Also four sources of invalid knowledge: memory, doubt (when there is no definite mark that would distinguish the truth from illusion), error (false certainty), and hypothetical argument (“If there was no fire, there wouldn’t be smoke, but there is smoke, so there must be fire”).

Pratyaksha (Perception)

Perception was an unerring belief produced by contact between an object and the senses. When I have clear and certain sight of a table, this is perception, and valid knowledge. If I see a shape in the distance that could be a man or a post but I cannot tell which, this is doubt, and not valid knowledge. If I am certain that I see a snake in a coil of rope, but there is no snake, this is error.

Anumana (Inference)

Inference, then, was knowledge that followed from some other knowledge: “Gautama is mortal, because Gautama is a man, and all men are mortal.”  Each case of inference has at least three propositions and, as in Aristotle’s logic, a minor, major, and middle term.

Here, Gautama’s manhood is the minor term (paksa), for it is the subject we are considering.

Gautama’s mortality is the major term (sadhya), for it is that which we want to establish by means of inference.

The mortality of all men is the middle term (linga), for it is what grounds our inference from Gautama’s manhood to his mortality.

Also as in Aristotle’s logic, each proposition in Nyaya inference was categorical.

However, most Nyaya adherents preferred to state these categorical syllogisms in five propositions, like so:

Gautama is mortal;

Because he is a man;

All men are mortal, for example Siddhartha, Brhaspati, and Kapila;

Gautama is also a man;

Therefore, Gautama is mortal.

First, the conclusion is asserted. Second, the reason for the conclusion. Third, the universal proposition is given, which connects the conclusion with the reason given, supported by known instances. Fourth, we apply the universal proposition to the present case. Fifth, the conclusion is restated.

Upamana

After perception and inference, the third form of valid knowledge for Nyaya was comparison (upamana).  This was the knowledge of what a word denotes. A young girl who does not know what a jackdaw is may be told it is like a crow, but bigger and of grey and black color. If she later encounters a bird like a crow but bigger and of grey and black color, she may think, “This must be a jackdaw,” and she would know this by “comparison.”

Testimony

The final source of valid knowledge for Nyaya was testimony, which consisted of understanding the meaning of what is said by a trustworthy person.

Using these sources of knowledge, what did Nyaya say about the physical world? Like some ancient Greeks, they said the world is made of eternal atoms of earth, water, fire, and air. The self could not be merely the body, for the body by itself is unconscious. It could not be the senses, for these cannot account for imagination. It could not be a stream of thoughts, for this would not explain memory. But neither was the self Brahman, for each self has its own thoughts, feelings, and desires that are not shared by other selves.

When one achieved true knowledge of the world and the self, one could achieve liberation from pain. When one realized that the self is separate from the body, one could be liberated from the body, and therefore from all the pain and pleasure that comes to the self through it.

What of God? God arranged the world from the eternal atoms, space, time, ether, and souls. God was all-powerful, all-beautiful, all-knowing, perfectly moral, and perfectly free from attachment.

yoga

Yoga Philosophy

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The Yoga darshana, founded by Patanjali in the 2nd century B.C., accepted the metaphysics of Samkhya, but added God. God was a perfect, eternal, omniscient being, and the highest object of meditation.

The Yoga argument for God was as follows:

Whatever comes in degrees must have a maximum. Knowledge comes in degrees, thus there must be a maximum of knowledge; omniscience must exist. The being with omniscience is called God.

However, the more important addition to Samkhya was the practice of yoga: the cessation of all mental function. The correct practice of yoga included eight things:

  • Yamas (Universal Morality) – The yamas are broken down into five ‘wise characteristics’
  • Ahimsa – Compassion for all living things
    The word ahimsa literally mean not to injure or show cruelty to any creature or any person in any way whatsoever. Ahimsa is, however, more than just lack of violence as adapted in yoga. It means kindness, friendliness, and thoughtful consideration of other people and things. It also has to do with our duties and responsibilities too. Ahimsa implies that in every situation we should adopt a considerate attitude and do no harm.
  • Satya – Commitment to Truthfulness
    Satya means, “To speak the truth,” yet it is not always desirable to speak the truth on all occasions, for it could harm someone unnecessarily. We have to consider what we say, how we say it, and in what way it could affect others. If speaking the truth has negative consequences for another, then it is better to say nothing. Satya should never come into conflict with our efforts to behave with ahimsa. This precept is based on the understanding that honest communication and action form the bedrock of any healthy relationship, community, or government, and that deliberate deception, exaggerations, and mistruths harm others.
  • Asteya – Non-stealing
    Steya means, “to steal”; asteya is the opposite-to take nothing that does not belong to us. This also means that if we are in a situation where someone entrusts something to us or confides in us, we do not take advantage of him or her. Non stealing includes not only taking what belongs to another without permission, but also using something for a different purpose to that intended, or beyond the time permitted by its owner.iii   The practice of asteya implies not taking anything that has not been freely given. This includes fostering a consciousness of how we ask for others’ time for inconsiderate behavior demanding another’s attention when not freely given is, in effect, stealing.
  • Brahmacharya – Sense control
    Brahmacharya is used mostly in the sense of abstinence, particularly in relationship to sexual activity. Brahmacharya suggests that we should form relationships that foster our understanding of the highest truths. Brahmacharya does not necessarily imply celibacy. Rather, it means responsible behavior with respect to our goal of moving toward the truth. Practicing brahmacharya means that we use our sexual energy to regenerate our connection to our spiritual self. It also means that we do not use this energy in any way that might harm others.
  • Aparigraha – Neutralizing the desire to acquire and hoard wealth
    Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary, and not to take advantage of a situation or act greedy. We should only take what we have earned; if we take more, we are exploiting someone else. The yogi feels that the collection or hoarding of things implies a lack of faith in God and in himself to provide for his future. Aparigraha also implies letting go of our attachments to things and an understanding that impermanence and change are the only constants.
    The Yoga Sutra describes what happens when these five behaviors outlined above become part of a person’sdaily life. Thus, the yamas are the moral virtues, which, if attended to, purify human nature and contribute to health and happiness of society.
  • Niyama (Personal Observances)

Niyama means “rules” or “laws.”  These are the rules prescribed for personal observance. Like the yamas, the five niyamas are not exercises or actions to be simply studied. They represent far more than an attitude. Compared with the yamas, the niyamas are more intimate and personal. They refer to the attitude we adopt toward ourselves as we create a code for living soulfully

  • Sauca – (Purity)-The first niyama is sauca, meaning purity and cleanliness. Sauca has both an inner and an outer aspect. Outer cleanliness simply means keeping ourselves clean. Inner cleanliness has as much to do with the healthy, free functioning of our bodily organs as with the clarity of our mind. Practicing asanas or pranayama are essential means for attending to this inner sauca. Asanas tones the entire body and removes toxins while pranayama cleanses our lungs, oxygenates our blood and purifies our nerves. “But more important than the physical cleansing of the body is the cleansing of the mind of its disturbing emotions like hatred, passion, anger, lust, greed, delusion and pride.”
  • Santosa (Contentment)– Another niyama is santosa, modesty and the feeling of being content with what we have. To be at peace within and content with one’s lifestyle finding contentment even while experiencing life’s difficulties for life becomes a process of growth through all kinds of circumstances. We should accept that there is a purpose for everything – yoga calls it karma – and we cultivate contentment ‘to accept what happens’. It means being happy with what we have rather than being unhappy about what we don’t have.
  • Tapas (Disciplined use of our energy)- Tapas refers to the activity of keeping the body fit or to confront and handle the inner urges without outer show. Literally it means to heat the body and, by so doing, to cleanse it. Behind the notion of tapas lies the idea we can direct our energy to enthusiastically engage life and achieve our ultimate goal of creating union with the Divine. Tapas helps us burn up all the desires that stand in our way of this goal. Another form of tapas is paying attention to what we eat. Attention to body posture, attention to eating habits, attention to breathing patterns – these are all tapas.
  • Svadhyaya (Self-study) – The fourth niyama is svadhyaya. Sva means “self’ adhyaya means “inquiry” or “examination”. Any activity that cultivates self-reflective consciousness can be considered svadhyaya. It means to intentionally find self-awareness in all our activities and efforts, even to the point of welcoming and accepting our limitations. It teaches us to be centered and non-reactive to the dualities, to burn out unwanted and self-destructive tendencies.
  • Isvarapranidhana (Celebration of the Spiritual) – Isvarapranidhana means, “To lay all your actions at the feet of God.” It is the contemplation on God (Isvara) in order to become attuned to god and god’s will. It is the recognition that the spiritual suffuses everything and through our attention and care, we can attune ourselves with our role as part of the Creator. The practice requires that we set aside some time each day to recognize that there is some omnipresent force larger than ourselves that is guiding and directing the course of our lives.
  • Asanas (Body postures)

                    Asana is the practice of physical postures. It is the most commonly known aspect of yoga for those unfamiliar with the other seven limbs of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. The practice of moving the body into postures has widespread benefits; of these, the most underlying are improved health, strength, balance and flexibility. On a deeper level the practice of asana, which means “staying” or “abiding” in Sanskrit, is used as a tool to calm the mind and move into the inner essence of being. The challenge of poses offers the practitioner the opportunity to explore and control all aspects of their emotions, concentration, intent, faith, and unity between the physical and the ethereal body. Indeed, using asanas to challenge and open the physical body acts as a binding agent to bring one in harmony with all the unseen elements of their being, the forces that shape our lives through our responses to the physical world. Asana then becomes a way of exploring our mental attitudes and strengthening our will as we learn to release and move into the state of grace that comes from creating balance between our material world and spiritual experience.

           As one practices asana it fosters a quieting of the mind, thus it becomes both a preparation for meditation and a meditation sufficient in and of itself. Releasing to the flow and inner strength that one develops brings about a profound grounding spirituality in the body. The physicality of the yoga postures becomes a vehicle to expand the consciousness that pervades our every aspect of our body. The key to fostering this expansion of awareness and consciousness begins with the control of breath, the fourth limb – Pranayama. Patanjali suggests that the asana and the pranayama practices will bring about the desired state of health; the control of breath and bodily posture will harmonize the flow of energy in the organism, thus creating a fertile field for the evolution of the spirit. “This down-to-earth, flesh-and-bones practice is simply one of the most direct and expedient ways to meet yourself. … This limb of yoga practice reattaches us to our body. In reattaching ourselves to our bodies, we reattach ourselves to the responsibility of living a life guided by the undeniable wisdom of our body. To this, B.K.S. Iyengar adds: “The needs of the body are the needs of the divine spirit which lives through the body. The yogi does not look heavenward to find God for he know that He is within.

  • Pranayama (Breath Control)

Pranayama is the measuring, control, and directing of the breath. Pranayama controls the energy (prana) within the organism, in order to restore and maintain health and to promote evolution. When the in-flowing breath is neutralized or joined with the out-flowing breath, then perfect relaxation and balance of body activities are realized. In yoga, we are concerned with balancing the flows of vital forces, then directing them inward to the chakra system and upward to the crown chakra.

Pranayama, or breathing technique, is very important in yoga. It goes hand in hand with the asana or pose. In the Yoga Sutra, the practices of pranayama and asana are considered the highest form of purification and self-discipline for the mind and the body, respectively. The practices produce the actual physical sensation of heat, called tapas, or the inner fire of purification. It is taught that this heat is part of the process of purifying the nadis, or subtle nerve channels of the body. This allows a more healthful state to be experienced and allows the mind to become calmer. As the yogi follows the proper rhythmic patterns of slow deep breathing, “the patterns strengthen the respiratory system, soothe the nervous system and reduce craving. As desires and cravings diminish, the mind is set free and becomes a fit vehicle for concentration.

  • Pratyahara (Control of the Senses)

Pratyahara means drawing back or retreat. The word ahara means “nourishment”; pratyahara translates as “to withdraw oneself from that which nourishes the senses.” In yoga, the term pratyahara implies withdrawal of the senses from attachment to external objects. It can then be seen as the practice of non-attachment to sensorial distractions as we constantly return to the path of self-realization and achievement of internal peace. It means our senses stop living off the things that stimulate; the senses no longer depend on these stimulants and are not fed by them anymore.

In pratyahara we sever this link between mind and senses, and the senses withdraw. When the senses are no longer tied to external sources, the result is restraint or pratyahara. Now that the vital forces are, flowing back to the Source within, one can concentrate without being distracted by externals or the temptation to cognize externals.

Pratyahara occurs almost automatically when we meditate because we are so absorbed in the object of meditation. Precisely because the mind is so focused, the senses follow it; it is not happening the other way around.

No longer functioning in their usual manner, the senses become extraordinarily sharp. Under normal circumstances, the senses become our masters rather than being our servants. The senses entice us to develop cravings for all sorts of things. In pratyahara the opposite occurs: when we have to eat we eat, but not because we have a craving for food. In pratyahara we try to put the senses in their proper place, but not cut them out of our actions entirely.

Much of our emotional imbalance are our own creation. A person who is influenced by outside events and sensations can never achieve the inner peace and tranquility. This is because he or she will waste much mental and physical energy in trying to suppress unwanted sensations and to heighten other sensations. This will eventually result in a physical or mental imbalance, and will, in most instances, result in illness.

Patanjali says that the above process is at the root of human unhappiness and uneasiness. When people seek out yoga, hoping to find that inner peace which is so evasive, they find that it was theirs all along. In a sense, yoga is nothing more than a process, which enables us to stop and look at the processes of our own minds; only in this way, can we understand the nature of happiness and unhappiness, and thus transcend them both.

  • Dharana (Concentration and cultivating inner perceptual awareness)

Dharana means “immovable concentration of the mind”. The essential idea is to hold the concentration or focus of attention in one direction.  “When the body has been tempered by asanas, when the mind has been refined by the fire of pranayama and when the senses have been brought under control by pratyahara, the sadhaka (seeker) reaches the sixth stage, dharana. Here he is concentrated wholly on a single point or on a task in which he is completely engrossed. The mind has to be stilled in order to achieve this state of complete absorption.”

In dharana we create the conditions for the mind to focus its attention in one direction instead of going out in many different directions. Deep contemplation and reflection can create the right conditions, and the focus on this one point that we have chosen becomes more intense. We encourage one particular activity of the mind and, the more intense it becomes, the more the other activities of the mind fall away.

The objective in dharana is to steady the mind by focusing its attention upon some stable entity. The particular object selected has nothing to do with the general purpose, which is to stop the mind from wandering -through memories, dreams, or reflective thought-by deliberately holding it single-mindedly upon some apparently static object. B.K.S. Iyengar states that the objective is to achieve the mental state where the mind, intellect, and ego are “all restrained and all these faculties are offered to the Lord for His use and in His service. Here there is no feeling of ‘I’ and ‘mine’.

When the mind has become purified by yoga practices, it becomes able to focus efficiently on one subject or point of experience. Now we can unleash the great potential for inner healing.

  • Dhyana (Devotion , Meditation on the Divine)

Dhyana means worship, or profound and abstract religious meditation. It is perfect contemplation. It involves concentration upon a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. The concept holds that when one focuses their mind in concentration on an object the mind is transformed into the shape of the object. Hence, when one focuses on the divine they become more reflective of it and they know their true nature. “His body, breath, senses, mind, reason and ego are all integrated in the object of his contemplation – the Universal Spirit.

During dhyana, the consciousness is further unified by combining clear insights into distinctions between objects and between the subtle layers of perception. “We learn to differentiate between the minds of the perceiver, the means of perception, and the objects perceived, between words, their meanings, and ideas, and between all the levels of evolution of nature.

As we fine-tune our concentration and become more aware of the nature of reality, we perceive that the world is unreal. “The only reality is the universal self, or God, which is veiled by Maya (the illusory power). As the veils are lifted, the mind becomes clearer. Unhappiness and fear – even the fear of death – vanishes. This state of freedom, or Moksha, is the goal of Yoga. It can be reached by constant enquiry into the nature of things. Meditation becomes our tool to see things clearly and perceive reality beyond the illusions that cloud our mind.

  • Samadhi (Union with the Divine)

       The final step in the eight-fold path of Yoga is the attainment of Samadhi. Samadhi means “to bring together, to merge.” In the state of samadhi the body and senses are at rest, as if asleep, yet the faculty of mind and reason are alert, as if awake; one goes beyond consciousness. During samadhi, we realize what it is to be an identity without differences, and how a liberated soul can enjoy pure awareness of this pure identity. The conscious mind drops back into that unconscious oblivion from which it first emerged.

       Thus, samadhi refers to union or true Yoga. There is an ending to the separation that is created by the “I” and “mine” of our illusory perceptions of reality. The mind does not distinguish between self and non-self, or between the object contemplated and the process of contemplation. The mind and the intellect have stopped and there is only the experience of consciousness, truth and unutterable joy.

       The achievement of samadhi is a difficult task. For this reason, the Yoga Sutra suggests the practice of asanas and pranayama as preparation for dharana, because these influence mental activities and create space in the crowded schedule of the mind. Once dharana has occurred, dhyana and samadhi can follow.

       These eight steps of yoga indicate a logical pathway that leads to the attainment of physical, ethical, emotional, and psycho-spiritual health. Yoga does not seek to change the individual; rather, it allows the natural state of total health and integration in each of us to become a reality.

Samkhya Philosophy- Oldest Indian Philosophical School

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Samkhya is often credited to a Vedic sage named Kapila, whose dates are unknown. His philosophy had a major influence on other Indian darshanas, but disappeared as it was subsumed into Vedanta and Yoga.Of the astika (Vedic) views, Samkhya appears to be the oldest. It was a dualist view based on two fundamentally different types of being: purusha (soul) and prakriti(matter, energy, and agency).  Prakriti was the cause of the material world, but purusha had no cause.  The soul did not change, but observed and enjoyed the ever-changing objects of prakriti.

Purusha and Prakriti

Purush

  • Supreme self
  • Pure consciousness
  • Inactive
  • Unchanging
  • A passive witness
  • Multiple

Prakriti

  • Pure objectivity
  • Phenomenal reality
  • Non-conscious
  • One mulprakriti in equilibrium

Gunas

Like a rope woven from three cords, the material world was woven of three gunas. They were inferred from the three ways we may react to things: with pleasure, displeasure, or indifference.  Thus, the three constituents of  prakriti were sattva (illumination, joy), rajas (excitation, pain), and tamas (roughness, obstruction, sloth).

Sattva is the quality of balance, harmony, goodness, purity, universalizing, holistic, constructive, creative, building, positive, peaceful, and virtuous.

Rajas is the quality of passion, activity, neither good nor bad and sometimes either, self-centeredness, egoistic, individualizing, driven, moving, dynamic.

Tamas is the quality of imbalance, disorder, chaos, anxiety, impure, destructive, delusion, negative, dull or inactive, apathy, inertia or lethargy, violent, vicious, and ignorant.

                According to Samkhya, a soul often confuses itself with its body. We feel pain upon the body as if it was pain upon the self, but this is a confusion. Once we realize the separateness of the soul, we cannot be affected by the joys and sorrows of the material world. However, liberation does not result from propositional knowledge alone, but through spiritual training and deep meditation upon the truth that the soul is beyond the causes and effects of space and time.

Samkhya provide knowledge which remove the cause of misery and release of soul.

Misery is

Adhyatmika – intrinsic cause disorder of body and mind

Adhibhautika – Extrinsic cause, men, beast, birds, or inanimate objects

Adhidevika – Supernatural cause, atmosphere or planets

Cause of Misery

Soul is free from suffering .Body is the seat of suffering .Soul suffer due to intimate association of soul and body. Bondage is illusion due to lack of true nature of soul – Ignorance  .Knowledge of true nature of soul removes bondage and suffering

Samkhya: Epistemology

Prataykshya –Indeterminate (Nirvikalp), Determinate (Savikalpa)

Anumana -Logical inference

Shabda -Verbal testimony

Theory of Existence

Satkaryavada -The effect pre-exists in the cause. Cause and effect are seen as different temporal aspects of the same thing. Nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness

Prakriti Pariman Vada- Parinama denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. Prakriti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects

Elements : There are five elements in Samkhya Philosophy

Akaskh – Ether

Vayu – air

Tejas – fire

Apas – water

Prithvi – earth

Existence of God

The original school of Samkhya as founded by Sage Kapila has no philosophical place for a creationist God. Sankhya had no need of God, for the material universe was sufficient to explain itself.  The Samkhyan’s argue that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist. The school also argues that an unchanging Ishvara as the cause cannot be the source of a changing world as the effect.

      Later on followers of Samkhya adopted theism and included Ishvara within the system.  The concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the Sankhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the theistic Yoga system of philosophy.

Later Vedic Age 1000 B.C.- 600 B.C

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Literature

The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age.This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Samhitas namely, the Samveda Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita as well as Brahmanas and the Upanishads of all the four Vedas.

Expansion

All these later Vedic texts were compiled in the Upper Gangetic basin in 1000—600 B.C. During the period represented by Later Samhitas the Aryans covered the whole of Northern India, from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas.

Samveda

The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1,549 hymns of which all but 75 are found in the Rigveda Samhita.  Its hymns were used for singing at sacrifices. The Ritvij who enchanted these saman (Hymns of Samveda) was called Udgata. Three Schools of Samveda -Kauthum, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya are found. Samveda is dedicated to Sun God.

Yajurveda

The Yajurveda Samhita consists partly of hymns and partly of prose, containing sacrificial formulae. It is divided into ‘white’ Yajurveda (Vajasaneyi Samhita-Poetry) and ‘black’ Yajurveda(Prose). Its name derived from ‘Yajush’ means Sacrifice. Schools: Kanva, Madhyandin (Shukla Yajurveda) & Katha,Kapishthal,Maitrayani,Taitiriya(Krishna Yajurveda) .First Reference of Videha State

Dedicated to : Vayu and Karma

Ritwij who enchanted these hymns during sacrifice was called ‘Adhvaryu’

Atharvaveda

Name derived from ‘Atharvan’ means Magic. The Atharvaveda Samhita (the latest of the Vedas) is a book of magical formulae and its hymns deal mainly with charms and spells to control demons and spirits.  It is divided into 20 books and contains about 731 hymns.

Known as Brahmaveda: Most Hymns are dedicated to Brhma.

Angirasa Veda: Created by Sage Angiras and his Family.

Mahi Veda: First Concept of Motherland in Prithvi Sukta of Atharva Veda.

Bhaishajya Veda: Due to Kena Sukta(First Medical Book), origin of Ayurveda.

Schools: Shaunak & Pippaladi

Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are notes in prose and they explain the origin and meaning of the various hymns of the Samhitas. The Aitareya and Kilushitaki Brahmanas are assigned to the Rigveda;

Tandya,Shadvinsha and ]aiminiya Brahmanas to the Samaveda;  Taittireya and Satapatha Brahmanas to the Yajurveda; and Gopatha Brahmana to the Atharvaveda.

The Brahmanas also contain cosmogonic myths, old legends and gathas or verses celebrating the exploits of kings famed in priestly tradition.

Aranyakas

Next, come the Aranyakas or forest texts, books of instruction to be given in the forest or writings meant for wood-dwelling hermits, which are found as appendices to the Brahmanas.

These treatises resemble the Brahmanas in language, style and even context, but they are concerned more with the allegorical significance of rites, and the mystic meaning of the Samhitas.

Upanishads

The Upanishads marked a reaction against sacrificial religion and are highly philosophical, dealing with the ultimate truth and reality, knowledge of which would emancipate a man.

Important Upanishads are Mundaka, Taittireya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Katha.

Political Organisation:Rise of Big States:

With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern part of India, the small tribal states of Rig Vedic period replaced by powerful states. Many famous tribes of Rig Vedic period like Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence.

The land of the Yamuna and Ganga in the east which became the new home of the Aryans rose into prominence.

Growth of Imperialism:

With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age the struggle for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of Sarvabhauma or universal empire loomed large in the political horizon of ancient India.  The sacrifices like Rajasuya and Asvamedha were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals. These rituals impressed the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was replaced by the impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja etc.

Origin of Kingship:

There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of origin of kingship. The Taittiriya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It explained how Indra, “though occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”

The king had absolute power. He realized taxes like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”. The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be infallible and immune from all punishment.

The sabha of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the aid and support of the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are references to the Samiti sometimes electing or re-electing a king. However, in spite of the existence of the popular assemblies the powers of the king went on increasing due to the growth of large territorial states and the evolution of an official hierarchy.

Administrative Structure
In the work of administration the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as Ratnins (Jewels).

Bhagadugha-collector of taxes

Suta-charioteer

Akshavapa -superintendent of gambling

Kshattri- chamberlain

Govikartana- king’s companion in the chase

Palagala –courtier

Takshan- Carpenter

Rathakara (Chariot marker)

Purohita- chaplain

Senani (general)

Gramani (leader of host or of the village)- In the Later Vedic Period Gramani was both a civil and military officer Gramani was the medium through which the royal power was exercised in the village.

According to Prasna Upanishada Adhikrita was the village officer and was lowest in the rank.

The king administered justice. Occasionally he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In the villages, Gramyavadin (Village judge) and Sabha (court) decided the cases. Punishments for crimes were severe.

Social Condition

The family remains the basic unit of the Vedic society.  However, its composition underwent a change. The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-family with three or four generations living together. The rows of hearths discovered at Atranjikhera and at Ahichchhtra (both in western Uttar Pradesh) show that these were meant for communal feeding or for cooking the food of large families. The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people having common gotra descended from a common ancestor and no marriage between the members of the same gotra could take place. Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was frequent. The most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of varna system. The four varnas in which society came to be divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period made the brahmanas very powerful.

They conducted various rituals including those related to different stages of agricultural operations.

The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with brahmanas controlled all aspects of life. Two Kshatriya kings Janak and Viswamitra attained the status of Rishi. The vaishyas, the most numerous varna were engaged in agriculture as well as in trade and artisanal activities. The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas. The shudras, the fourth varna were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They were ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas.

They were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara (investiture with sacred thread necessary to acquire education). The other three varnas were entitled to such a ceremony and hence they were known as dvijas. This can be construed as the beginning of the imposition of disabilities on the shudras as well as the beginning of the concept of ritual pollution.

Ashrama System

Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or different stages of life.

Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder), and vanaprastha (hermitage) stages are mentioned in the texts. Later, sanyasa, the fourth stage also came to be added.  Together with varna, it came to be known as varna-ashrama dharma.

Position of women:
Some restrictions on women appeared during this period In a text women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text, a daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows. Women had to stay with her husband at his place after marriage. The participation of women in public meetings was restricted.

Food and Dress:

In the later Vedic age rice became staple food of the people. Gradually the practice of eating meat was declined. Killing of cow was looked with disfavour. Wool was used in addition to cotton.

Economic Condition:Agriculture

In the villages small peasant owners of land were replaced by big landlords who secured possession of entire villages. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. Improved method of tilling the land by deep ploughing, the Aryans knew manuring and sowing with better seeds. More lands were brought under cultivation.Many rituals were introduced to initiate the process of agriculture. It also speaks of ploughing with yokes of six and eight oxen.

The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes and was extremely useful in ploughing the swampy land. The god Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of the Plough’ in this period. The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now cultivated wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet,sugarcane etc. The items of dana and dakshina included cooked rice. Thus with the beginning of food production agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals. Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came to be used in rituals. The cultivator yielded two harvests a year.

But the cultivator was not free from trouble. Dangers of insects and damage of crops through hailstorm very badly affected the land of kurus and compelled many people to migrate. There has been a continuous increase in the population during the later Vedic period due to the expansion of the economy based on agriculture. The increasing number and size of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) settlements in the doab area shows this. Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of seasons, manuring and irrigation.  All these developments resulted in the substantial enlargement of certain settlements such as Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic period.

Trade and Commerce

With the growth of civilization, the volume of trade and commerce had increased by leaps and bounds. Both inland and overseas trades were developed. Inland trade was carried on with the Kiratas inhabiting the mountains. They exchanged the herbs for clothes, nattresses and skins.

The people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. Regular coinage was not started. There was a class of merchants called ‘Pani’ who controlled the trade. References to “ganas” or corporations and the “sreshthins” clearly speak of the formation of guilds or corporations for facilitating trade and commerce. Usury and money lending was also practiced in this period.

Coinage

The coins which were in circulation were “Nishka”, “Satamana” and “Krishnala”.  The unit value of goods was a gold bar called “nishka” weighing three hundred and twenty ratis, which was also the weight of a satamana. A ‘Krishnala’ weighed one rati, i.e. 1.8 grams.

Use of Iron

The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the later Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC. The Rigvedic people knew of a metal called ayas which was either copper or bronze. In the later Vedic literature ayas was qualified with shyama or krishna meaning black to denote iron. Archaeology has shown that iron began to be used around 1000 BC which is also the period of later Vedic literature. The northern and eastern parts of India to which the Aryans later migrated receive more rainfall than the north-western part of India. As a result this region is covered with thick rain forests which could not be cleared by copper or stone tools used by Rigvedic people. The use of iron tools now helped people clear the dense rain forests particularly the huge stumps left after burning, in a more effective manner. The iron plough could turn the soil from deeper portions making it more fertile.

Religious Condition:

Religion was overshadowed with rites and rituals. The Rig Vedic gods, Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya, Usha etc. lost their charm. New gods like Siva, Vishnu, Brahma etc. appeared in the Later Vedic Period. Certain less important duties of the Rigvedic Period now became popular with the Common People. One of them was Rudra who already bore the epithet of Siva. Very soon Rudra came to be worshipped as ‘Mahadeva’ (great god) and the lord of animate beings (Pasupati).

Vishnu, the preserver rose into Prominence during this period. He occupied the place of Varuna, as the most sublime among the celestials. To attain his “Paramapada” (highest step) became the goal of the rishis.

Rituals and Sacrifices:

During this period the rites and ceremonies of Vedic religion were elaborated and became complex. In the Rig Vedic age Yanjas were a simple affair which every householder could do,but in the later Vedic age sacrifice became an important thing in worship. Now the priestly class devoted their energy to find out the hidden and mystic meaning of the rites and ceremonies.

Vedic hymns were regarded as charms to be used in sacrifice.  The belief that gods were satisfied by Yanjas led to a rise in the number, variety of sacrifices which were prescribed for every householder. In fact every Aryan performed a number of sacrifices under the supervision of the Brahmana priest.

Vedic Philosophy

A large number of cattle and other animals, which were sacrificed at the end of each yajna, must have hampered the growth of economy. Therefore, a path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was recommended for happiness and welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads. The Upnishads contain two basic principles of Indian philosophy viz., karma and the transmigration of soul, i.e., rebirth based on past deeds. According to these texts real happiness lies in getting moksha i.e. freedom from this cycle of birth and re-birth.

Early Vedic Period-1500 B.C. – 1000 B.C.

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Aryans

After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic civilization flourished in India. The people who were responsible for the evolution of this civilization called themselves Aryas or Aryans.

They entered into India from the north-west.

They spoke the Indo-European languages from which modern languages like Sanskrit, Persian, Latin, Greek, and Gothic have developed. Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of the Alps, known as Eurasia.

Theories of Origin: European Origin:

 

The early Aryans were familiar with certain animals such as goats, dogs, pigs, cows, horses etc. and with the trees like pine, maple, oak, willow, birch etc., which are found in Europe. This led to Prof. Giles to suggest the European origin of the Aryans. He believed that they migrated to India and other parts of Asia from Europe.

According to Giles, Balkan countries were the original home of the Aryans. The flora and fauna and the animals with which the early Aryans were familiar could be found in the Balkan countries at that time.

Prof. Hist believes that the Aryans migrated from Lithuania Europe into Caucasus and from there they entered into Iran. Again, from Iran they entered into Punjab.

Migration from Southern Russia:

 

Some historians held the view that the Aryans entered into India from the region of South Russia. Brandenstain has suggested that the Aryans migrated to India from Kirghitz stepps in Russia.  The great Philologist, Schrader accepts South Russia as the original home of Aryans from where they migrated to different areas.

Indian Origin:

Some historians held the view that Aryans belonged to India. The Rig Veda refers to ‘Sapta Sindhu’ land (of seven rivers) which was the name of Punjab. Subsequently it was called “Panchanada” (land of five rivers). But, the flora and fauna with which the Aryans were familiar are not found in Punjab. Again, the fertility of Punjab must have attracted immigration. From the linguistic view, point Greek and Latin belong to Aryan group of Languages. These considerations led the historians to believe that Aryans do not originally belong to India.

linguistic Study

From linguistic study, it is proved that the Aryans migrated from C. Asia or South Russia to India. For example ‘Pider’ and ‘Mader’ in Parsi, ‘Pater’ and ‘Mater’ of Latin, “Father’ and ‘Mother’ of English resemble with ‘Pitru’ and ‘Matru’ of Sanskrit. We can find hundreds of similar words like these. So the historians generally accepted the view that Aryans migrated from C. Asia or South Russia to India.

Rigveda

From Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen of Indo-European language we know about the Aryans. The Rig Veda consists of ten mandalas (Chapters) and 1028 Hymns.  It is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other deities by various families of poets or sages.Important among them are Gutsamad(2nd Mandala), Vishvamitra(3rd Mandala), Vamdeva(4th Mandala), Atri(5th Mandala), Bhardwaj(6th Mandala) and Vashishtha (7th Mandala)

Relation with Avesta

Rig Veda has many things in common with ‘Avesta’ of Iran. The ‘Rig Veda’ and ‘Avesta’ use the same names for several gods and even for several classes. Some Aryan names engraved in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 B.C. and the Mittani inscriptions of the fourteenth century B.C. found in Iraq proves that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Home of the Aryans in India:


The Aryans appeared in India a little earlier than 1500 B.C. The earliest Aryans settled down in eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and fringes of Uttar Pradesh.  The Rig-Veda mentioned the names of some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the river Indus and its branches. The earliest settlements of Aryans were confined to the region known as Sapt Saindhav (Land of Seven Rivers).

Seven Rivers of Sapt Saindhav

  1. Indus : Sindhu
  2. Jhelam: Vitasta
  3. Sutlej: Shatudri
  4. Ravi: Parushni
  5. Beas: Bipasa
  6. Chenab : Askini
  7. Ghaggar: Saraswati

The Vedas:

 

The Vedas form the oldest literary works of the Aryans and occupy a very distinguished place in the history of the world literature. Aryans have looked upon Vedas as the revealed words of God. In course of many centuries, Vedas had grown up and was orally handed down from generation to generation. The Vedas were probably authored during 1500 BC and 600 BC. It consists of three successive classes of literary production.

These three classes are:

 

(i) The Samhitas or Mantras—these are collections of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies, sacrificial formulas.

(ii) The Brahmanas—a kind of Primitive theology and philosophy of Brahmanas.

(iii) The Aranyakas and Upanishads—they are partly included in the Brahmanas or attached thereto and partly exist as separate work. They contain philosophical meditations of the hermits and ascetics on soul, God, world & man.

Samhitas

There are four Samhitas, which are different from one another.

These are:

(i) The Rigveda Samhita:

A collection of hymns. It has ten mandalas with a total of 1028 ‘Suktas’ or ‘stutis” for the worship of gods like Indra, Surya, Agni, Yama, Varuna Ashwini, Usha etc.

(ii) Samaveda Samhita:

A collection of songs mostly taken from Rig Veda. It contained 1549 stutis. A special class of priests known as “Udgator” were to recite its hymns.

 (iii) Yajur Veda Samhita:

A collection of sacrificial formula. It has 40 mandals. There are two distinct forms of Yajur Veda namely. “Sukla Yajur Veda” and “Krishna Yajur Veda”. The “Sukla Yajur Veda” contains the genesis while the “Krishna Yajur Veda” describes the “Vasya” or the philosophy.

(iv) Atharva Veda Samhita:

A collection of songs and spells. It has twenty mandalas with 731 ‘stutis’. It deals with magic, hypnotism, enslavement through mantra. It is regarded on a lower level than the other three Vedas. These four samhitas formed the basis of four Vedas.

Brahmanas,Aranyakas and Upanishads

Every work belonging to the second and third classes of Vedic literature viz, the Brahmanas, the Arayakas and the Upanishads, is attached to one or another of these samhitas and is said to belong to that particular Veda.

The Authorship of the Vedic Literature

The Aryans believed that the hymns were merely revealed to the sages and not composed by them.For this Vedas are called “apaurusheya’ (not made by man) and ‘ritya” (existing in all eternity).  The ‘Rishis’ to whom they are ascribed are known as Mantradrasta’. (Who received the mantra by sight directly from the Supreme Creator).

Vedangas:

 

Besides the Vedas, there is another class of works whose authorship is ascribed to human beings.

They are known as Sutras or Vedangs. There are six vedangas. These are siksha (pronounciation), chhandas (metre) Jyotisha (astronomy), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Ninukta (explanation of words).

Socio Political Structure

The lowest unit of the Rig-Vedic society was the patriarchal family. A number of families bound together by ties of blood formed a clan, several clans formed a district, and a number of districts composed a tribe. From the Rig Veda we come to know about some administrative units termed as ‘grama’, ‘vis’, and the ‘jana’.The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as ‘gramani’.

                During war or battle, he used to lead the soldiers from his village. He attend the meetings of the ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’.  Several villages formed a ‘vis’. It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader. A group of ‘vishes’ formed a ‘jana'(tribe) whose members were bound together by real or supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one ‘jana’. Several janas formed a ‘janapada’ or ‘kingdom’. The ‘Rajan’ or the king was the head of the Janapada.

Battle of Ten Kings

Rig Veda mentions about various tribes such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Krivis, Tritsus. However, the tribes, which acquired great importance, are the Purus, Turvasas, Yadus, Anus and Drahyus.

King Sudas of Bharat tribe defeated a united army of ten kings- Yadu, Anu, Druhyu, Turvas, Puru, Alina, Paktha, Bhalana, Vishani and Shivi on the bank of river Parushni (Ravi)

Form of Government

Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary. Nevertheless, there was a sort of hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family exercising the power in common.  There were references of democratic form of government and the assembled people elected their chiefs.

The King

The kingdom was small in extent.  The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. The priest as king in the ‘Abhisheka’ Ceremony anointed him. The king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people. He was required to be ‘Indra’ in valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘varuna’ in virtues. The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and maintenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices.  Maintenance of law and order was his principal duty.  He maintained justice with the help of Purohitas. He collected tributes known as “Bali” or “Bhag” in kind from his subjects.

Officials

In the work of administration a number of functionaries like the Purohita (priest), the senani (general) the Gramani (village headman) and the spasa (spies) assisted the king.  Purohita was the most important officer of the state.

The Army


The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots). The weapons used by the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These weapons were made up of irons.  The soldiers were organised into units known as Sardha, Vrata and gana.

Socio Political Organizations

The Rig Veda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as Sabha and Samiti.  Though the king enjoyed substantial power, yet he was not an autocrat.  In the work of administration, he consulted these two bodies and act according to their decision.  Sabha was a select body of elders. The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’. The Sabha advised the king on administration. It also functioned as a court of law, tried the cases of criminals, and punished them.

Samiti

The Samiti was the most popular assembly and included common people.  The head of Samiti was known as ‘Pati’. The Samiti mainly dealt with the political business of the state.  It also used to elect the king.  In the early Vedic Age the Sabha and Samiti had a commendable role to play as the political organisation of the aryans.

The Earliest Tribal Assembly – Vidhata

Vidatha seems to be an important assembly in the Rig Vedic period.  Vidatha was an assembly meant for secular, religious and military purpose.  The Rig-Veda only once indicated the connection of woman with the Sabha whereas Vidatha is frequently associated with woman. Women actively participated in the deliberations with men. Vidatha also associated with distribution of bounty

Social Life:Family

The family was regarded as the social and political unit.  It was the nucleus of the social life of the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”.  The Aryans had joint families. The father had great authority over the children. Though the father was kind and affectionate, yet at times he became cruel towards his children. From Rig-Veda we come to know about a father who blinded his son Rjrasva for his extravagance.

Position of Women:

 

In the early Vedic age, women enjoyed an honored place in the society.  The education of girls was not neglected.  The Rig-Veda mentions the names of some learned women like Lopamudra, Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed mantras and attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after attaining puberty. The practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in the society. Monogamy was the general Practice. Polygamy was practiced and it was confined only to Rings and chiefs. Remarriage of widows was permitted. The women were not independent persons in the eye of the law. They had to remain under the protecting care of their male relations.

Dress and Ornaments:

 

The Aryans wore dresses made from cotton, wool and deerskin. The garments consisted of three parts—an undergarment called ‘nivi’, a garment called ‘Vasa’ or ‘Paridhan’ and a mantle known as ‘adhivasa’, ‘atka’ ‘dropi’. The garments were also embroidered with gold. Both men and women wore gold ornaments. The women used earrings, necklace, bangles, and anklets.  These ornaments were sometimes studded with precious stones.

Food and Drink:

 

The Aryans ate both vegetable and animal foods. Rice, barley, bean and sesamum formed the staple food. They also ate bread, cake, milk, ghee, butter, and curd together with fruits. Fish, birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for their food. They also drank intoxicating liquor, known as sura, a brandy made from corn and barley and the juice of soma plant.

Amusements:

 

Rig Vedic people spent their leisure time in various amusements like gambling, war,dancing, chariot racing, hunting, boxing, dancing and music. Women displayed their skill in dancing and music. The singers used three types of musical instruments like percussion, string and wind.

Caste System

In the early Vedic age, there was no caste system. Member of same family took to different arts, crafts and trades. People could change their occupation according to their needs or talents. There was hardly any restriction in intermarriage, change of occupation. A late hymn of the Rig-Veda known as Purushasukta refers to four Varnas. But Varna system was never rigid and hereditary.

Economy :Agriculture

 

Reference in Rig-Veda shows, that agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. They ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rig-Veda even mentions that twenty-four oxen were attached to a ploughshare at the same time to plough the land. The ploughed land was known as Urvara or Kshetra. Water was supplied into the fields by means of irrigation canal. They knew use of manure. Barley and wheat were mainly cultivated. Cotton and oil seeds were also grown. Rice was perhaps not extensively cultivated. Agriculture was their main source of income.

Domestication of animals

Besides agriculture, cattle breeding were another means of living. There are prayers in the Vedas for Gosu (cattle). Cows were held in great respect. Cows were symbols of wealth and prosperity of the Aryans. Sometimes cow was the medium of exchange. The Aryans had also domesticated animals like horse, draught OX, dog, goat, sheep, buffalo and donkey.

Occupation:

 

Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry, Aryans had also other occupation. Weaving was the most important occupation. We learnt about weavers (Vayas) of wool and cotton together with the workers in the subsidiary industries of dying and embroidery. The carpenters built houses, chariots, and wagons and supplied household utensils and furniture. There were blacksmiths who supplied various necessaries of life, from fine needles and razors to the sickles, ploughshares, spears and swords. The gold smiths made ornaments like earrings, bangles, necklaces, bands etc. The leather-workers made bowstrings and casks for holding liquor. The physicians (Bhishaj) cured diseases. The priests performed sacrifices, composed hymns, and taught them to the disciples.

Trade and Commerce:

 

There were trade and maritime activity. Sometimes traders made journey to distant lands for larger profits in trade. The principal media of trade was barter. Cow was used as unit of value. Gradually pieces of gold called “mishka” were used as means of exchange. Trade and commerce was regulated and managed by a group of people called “Pani”.

Transport and Communication:

 

The chief means of transport by land were rathas (Chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen. Riding on horseback was also in vogue. Travelling was common though roads were haunted by taskara (highwaymen) and wild animals infested forests.

Religious Condition:

 

The religious life of the Aryans was simple and plain. They worshipped various manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the Dawn, the thunder, the wind and the Air. Vedic hymns were composed in praise of nature. Rigveda mentions that gods and goddesses of 3 category were worshipped by the Aryans.

(1) The terrestrial gods (Prrithvi Sthaniya) such as Prithvi, Agni and Soma,

(2) The atmospheric gods (Antariksh Sthaniya) such as, Indra, Rudra (Probably lightning), Maruts, Vayu (wind) and Parjanya and

(3) Celestial gods (Dyu Sthaniya) such as Dyaus (the sky), Varuna (vault of Heaven), Ushas (dawn), Asvins (probably twilight and morning stars) and Surya, Mitra, Savitri and Vishnu,Pushan,Vivasman  all associated with the most glorious phenomenon of nature, viz., the sun.

Indra

Among the vedic gods, Indra occupied the chief place, was given the largest number of hymns—about one fourth of the total number of hymns in the Rig Veda Samhita.  He was also known as Purandara (destroyer of forts). He was the god of rain and god of war also.

Maruta was the god of storm. He helped Indra in scattering away the demons. Usha was the goddess of dawn(Morning form of Sun).

Varuna

Varuna was regarded as the regulator of moral values (Rita).  He was conceived as the omniscient ruler of the cosmic waters. Varuna was “the deliverer from sin”. Some scholars seek to identify Varuna with Uranus. He lived in heaven and punished the sinners. He is the keeper of the laws of universe, the ‘Rita’. The seasons turned at his command, the day followed the night at his direction. If Varuna compelled the universe and nature to obey the law, he also wanted the man, a part of nature to obey the law—the Rita. He punished departure and diversions by man. Ethics was the law that guided the human relations.

Varun and Mitra

Varuna punished negligence to ethics and ethical values. However, he was never a cruel God like Indra. One could get his grace by suitable penance and devotion to him. Mitra is sometimes mentioned with Varuna though he was an independent God. He was the keeper of promises, treaties and Varuna punished the violator.

Rudra– The God of Rig Vedic Religion, Rudra was the God of storm and thunder. However, he was relatively unimportant in the Rig Vedic Religion and later on he was merged with the Siva. He was conceived as the God of death. He destroyed men by spreading epidemics, disease, flood, fire and death.

Vishnu who became so prominent later on also remained relatively unimportant in the Rig Vedic period. Prithvi was regarded as the goddess of grain and of procreation.

Agni was second in importance only to Indra. He acted as the coordinator among all deities. He conveyed to the gods the oblations offered by the devotees. He received special homage by the people as no sacrifice could be performed without offering to him.

Vishnu (Associated with Sun in Rigveda) was worshipped as the god of three worlds.He is regarded as ‘God with Golden Embryo’.

 Surya was regarded as the destroyer of darkness.

Apart from these deities, others like Savitar (A form of Sun,whom Gayatri Mantra is dedicated), Brihaspati ,Aranyani(Forest Goddess) and Prajnya were also worshipped.

Mode of Worship:

 

The mode of worship was simple. The Vedic worship meant primarily only oblation and prayer. A great value was attached to the hymns. The Aryans chanted hymns to appease the various divinities. Yajna or sacrifice was another mode to appease the gods and goddesses. They offered milk, ghee, grains, wine, fruits etc. as offering into fire. Animals like horses, buffaloes, rams, bulls, and even cows were also sometimes sacrificed.

Worship

The process of sacrifice was simple. Every Aryan family took part in the offering of prayers and performing of fire-sacrifice.  There was no priestly class for performing these religious sites. No shrine or temple was built.  Image worship was unknown in those days. Religion was materialistic in nature.

Monistic Trends

In-spite of worshipping various deities the Vedic age saw the prevalence of monotheism. The hymns of Rig-Veda, Mandal x, 82 express the belief that God is one although. He bears many names.  The idea of single supreme power governing and controlling the universe seems to have emerged. Nasadiya Sukta also express monistic views.

Harappan Civilization

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The Harappan Civilization flourished around 2,500 B.C. in the western part of South Asia, in what today is Pakistan and western India.The Indus or the Harappan civilisation belongs to the Chalcolithic or Bronze Age since the objects of copper and stone were found at the various sites of this civilisation. Nearly, 1,400 Harappan sites are known so far in the sub-continent.

They belong to early, mature and late phases of the Harappan culture. However, the number of the sites belonging to the mature phase is limited, and of them, only half a dozen can be regarded as cities.

Some of the noteworthy sites which have been excavated are Harappa (1921) by Daya Ram Sahni, Mohenjodaro (1922) by R.D. Banerjee, Dholavira (1967-68) by J.P. Joshi and (1990-91) by R.S. Bisht, Kalibangan by Dr. A. Ghosh, Lothal (1955-63), Chanhu-daro, Banawali (1975-77), etc.

Origins of Harappan Civilization

Mehrgarh gives us an archaeological record with a sequence of occupations. Archaeological research over the decades has established a continuous sequence of strata, showing the gradual development to the high standard of the full-fledged Indus civilisation. By reviewing the main elements of the rural cultures of the Indian sub-continent, the origin of the Indus civilisation can be traced. Any Pre-Harappan culture claiming ancestry to the Indus civilisation must satisfy two conditions.

  1. It must not only precede but also overlap the Indus culture.
  2. The second is that the essential elements of the Indus culture must have been anticipated by the Proto-Harappan (Indus) culture in its material aspects, viz, the rudiments of town planning, provision of minimum sanitary facilities, knowledge of pictographic writing, the introduction of trade mechanisms, the knowledge of metallurgy and the prevalence of ceramic traditions.

The different stages of the indigenous evolution of the Indus can be documented by an analysis of four sites, which reflect the sequence of the four important stages or phases in the pre-history and proto-history of the Indus valley region.

The sequence begins with the transition of nomadic herdsmen to settled agricultural communities as per the evidence found at the first site i.e. Mehrgarh near the Bolan Pass. It continues with the growth of large villages and the rise of towns in the second stage exemplified at Amri.

The Amri people did not possess any knowledge of town planning or of writing.

The third stage in the sequence leads to the emergence of the great cities as in Kalibangan and finally ends with their decline, which is the fourth stage and exemplified by Lothal.

Amri, Kotdiji and Kalibangan cultures are stratigraphically pre-Harappan.

Pre H Cultures

The pre-Harappan culture of Kalibangan in Rajasthan is termed as Sothi culture by Amalananda Ghosh, its excavator. The Harappan owed certain elements such as the fish scale and pipal leaf to the Sothi ware.

The four Baluchi cultures, viz, Zhob, Quetta, Nal and Kulli, undoubtedly pre-Harappan, also have some minor common features with the Indus civilisation but are not full-fledged proto-Harappan cultures.

The culture of Northern Baluchistan is termed as ‘Zhob’ culture after the sites in the Zhob valley, the chief among them being Rana Ghundai. This culture is characterised by black and red ware and terracotta female figurines.

Nal culture is characterised by the use of white-clipped ware with attractive polychrome paintings and the observance of fractional burial.

The characteristic pottery of the Quetta culture is the buff-ware, painted in black pigment and decorated with geometrical designs.

Apart from the painted motifs such as the pipal leaf and sacred brazier, some pottery shapes are common to the Harappan and Kulli cultures.

All these pre-Harappan habitations preceding the phase of the Harappan civilization shows evidences of people living in houses of stone and mud-brick.

There are many similarities in the cultural traditions of the diverse agricultural communities living in the Indus region in the ‘early Indus period’.

During the urban phase, these little traditions were fused into one great tradition. However, even in the ‘early Indus period’, use of similar kinds of pottery terracotta mother goddess, repre­sentation of the horned deity in many sites show the way to the emergence of a homogenous tradition in the entire area.

Harappa: It was the first Indus site to be discovered and excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni.  The site has two large and imposing ruined mounds located some 25 kms. South-west of Mont­gomery district of Punjab (Pakistan) on the left bank of river Ravi. Charles Masson was the first archaeologist who reported vast mounds at Harappa in 1826. Alexander Cunningham identified Harappa with Po-Fa-to or Po-Fa-to-do visited by Hiuen-Tsang.

  1. a) The western mound of Harappa, smaller represented the citadel, parallelogram in plan and fortified.
  2. b) Outside the citadel was the unfortified town having some important structures identified with workers’ quarters, working floors and granaries. The workers’ quarters, 10 in number were of uniform size and space (17×7.5 m). Close to these quarters were 16 furnaces, pear- shaped on plan with cow-dung ash and charcoal.
  3. c) 12 Granary building of 15.24×6.10 m each, arranged systematically in 2 rows (6 in each row) with central passage 7 m. wide
  4. d) 891 seals which form 36.32 per cent of the total writing material of the Harappan civilization
  5. e) Two very important stone figurines (not available at any other site) which include one red stone torso of a naked male figure (the prototype of the Jina or Yaksha Figure) and a female figure in dancing pose.
  6. f) A crucible used for smelting bronze was also found at a slightly higher level.
  7. g) Dog attacking deer on a pin
  8. h) Evidence of the disposal of the dead has been found to the south of the citadel area named as cemetery R-37.

Excavations have also yielded 57 burials of different types. The skeletons were disposed of in the graves along with the grave-goods.

Mohenjodaro

The site of Mohenjo-Daro (Mound of the Dead) situated in the Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan) and 540 km. south of Harappa ,on the right bank of the river Indus.

It also has two mounds, the western being the citadel or acropolis and the eastern extensive mound was enshrining the relics of the buried lower city.

  1. The most important public place of Mohenjo-Daro seems to be the Great Bath, with a bed made water tight by the use of bitumen and a system of supplying and draining away water. This tank in the citadel mound is an example of beautiful brickwork measuring 11.88×7.01 meters and 2.43 meters deep. Flight of steps at either end lead to the surface. This tank seems to have been used for ritual bathing.
  2. In Mohenjo-Daro, the largest building is the great granary, which is 45.71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide and lies to the west of the great bath.
  3. To the northeast of the great bath is a long collegiate building, perhaps meant for the residence of a very high official, possibly the high priest himself, or a college of priests.
  4. The lower unfortified city displayed all the elements of a planned city. The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the city is that they followed the grid system with the main streets running north south and east-west dividing the city into many blocks. This is true of almost all Indus settlements regardless of size. The main streets in the lower city are about 9.14 metre wide. The drainage system of Mohenjo-Daro was very impressive. These drains were covered with bricks and sometimes with stone slabs. The street drains were equipped with manholes. Houses were made of kiln-burnt bricks as in Harappa.
  5. Material remains of Mohenjo-Daro with its richness confirms that it was a great city of the Harappan civilisation. About 1398 seals representing 56.67 percent of the total writing material of Harappan cities throws light on Harappan religion. Important stone images found here includes the torso of a priest made of steatite (19 cm), lime stone male head (14 cm), the seated male of alabaster (29.5 cm), the seated male with the hands placed on knees (21 cm) and a composite animal figure made up of limestone. The bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro considered a masterpiece (14 cm) is made by cast wax technique.

Dholavira
Situated in Kutch district of Gujarat, Dholavira is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Dr J.P. Joshi first noticed the ancient mounds of Dholavira but R.S. Bisht and his team conducted extensive excavation work at the site in 1990-91. It shares almost all the common features of the Indus cities but its unique feature is that there are three principal divisions (instead of two in other cities), two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications.

The first inner encloser hemmed in the citadel (the acropolis) probably housed the highest authority and second one protected the middle town meant for the close relatives of the administrators and other officials. The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the unique feature of this settlement. The access to these fortified settlements at Dholavira was provided through an elaborate gate-complex.

Kalibanga
Situated in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan on the southern bank of the Ghaggar river this site was excavated by B.B. Lai and B.K. Thapar (1961-69).  This site also has two mounds yielding the remains of a citadel and lower city respectively. Excavations have revealed evidence of pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.

  1. The citadel and the lower city both were fortified.
  2. The citadel had mud-brick platforms having seven fire-altars in a row.
  3. The people of Kalibangan used mud-bricks for the construction of houses, the use of burnt bricks has been found only in wells, drains and pavements.

d.The cylindrical seals found at Kalibangan had an analogy in the Mesopotamian counterpart.

  1. Excavations at Kalibangan revealed the evidence of the ploughed field.

Lothal:
It was an important trading centre of the Harappan civilization and situated near the bed of the Bhogwa River at the head of the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. It was excavated by S R. Rao, which brought to light five period sequences of cultures.  It was one rectangular settlement surrounded by a brick wall.  Along the eastern side of the town was a brick basin, which has been identified as a dockyard by its excavator.

  1. a) The house of a wealthy merchant yielded gold beads with axial tubes and sherds of Reserved Slip Ware related to the Sumerian origin indicating that the merchants were engaged in foreign trade.
  2. b) Metal-workers, shell ornament makers and bead-makers shops have been discovered here.
  3. c) The discovery of the Persian Gulf seal and the Reserved Slip Ware suggests that Lothal was engaged in the maritime activities.

Sutkagendor:
Situated at a distance of 500 kms to the west of Karachi on the Makran coast it functioned as a trading post of the Harappans.  It was originally a port of Harappan according to archaeologist Dales but later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift.  Excavation at the site revealed the two-fold division of the township into ‘citadel’ and ‘Lower city’.

Surkotada:
Situated about 270 km. north-west of Ahmedabad in Gujarat the settlement pattern of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Kalibangan was repeated here.

As at Kalibangan, both the citadel and the lower town were fortified. There was also an inter-communicating gate between the two. In addition to mud- bricks, stone rubble was liberally used for construction.  In the last phase of this site, bones of horses, hitherto unknown, have been discovered.

Banawali
Situated in the Hissar district of Haryana it was on the bank of the river Rangoi, identified with the ancient bed of Sarasvati River. The excavations conducted by R.S. Bisht have yielded two cultural phases, Pre-Harappan and Harappan, similar to that of Kalibangan. The Harappan phase showed significant departure from the established norms of town-planning (chess-board pattern as in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, etc.). The roads were neither always straight, nor are they cut at right-angles. It lacked systematic drainage system, a noteworthy feature of the Harappan civilisation.

Chanhudaro:
The township of Chanhudaro, situated about 130 km. south of Mohenjodaro, consists of a single mound divided into several parts by erosion. An evidence of material remains clearly shows that it was the major centre of production for the beautiful seals. The hoards of copper and bronze tools, castings, evidence of the crafts like bead making, bone items and seal making suggest that artisans and crafts-men mostly inhabited Chandhudaro.  Excavations have also unearthed a furnace with a brick- floor used for glazing steatite beads.

Kot Diji

Situated on the left bank of the Indus River about 50 km. east of Mohenjo-Daro, the site of Kot Diji excavated by F.A. Khan Yields two cultural phases’ pre-Harappan and Harappan civilisation.  Material remains discovered at the site are terracotta bulls, five figurines of the Mother Goddess and large unbaked cooking brick-lined ovens.

Polity and Society:

 

There is no clear idea about the political organization of the Harappans. If the Harappan cultural zone is considered identical with the political zone, the sub-continent did not witness such a large political unit until the rise of the Maurya Empire. Probably the Harappans made the first ever experiment to bring about political unity of the divergent geographical units of the civilisation without the use of force. The total absence of internecine wars, religious or political, speaks volumes about the peaceful administration of the Indus state.

It is difficult to believe that priests ruled in Harappa, as they did in the cities of lower Mesopotamia for we have no religions structures of any kind except the Great Bath. There are some indications of the practice of fire cult at Lothal in the later phase, but no temples were used for the purpose.

Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than with conquests, and a class of merchants possibly ruled it.

Society:

An important characteristic of the Harappan civilisation was its urban life. The social stratification is reflected in the dwellings and disposition of the dead bodies in the graves. The Harappan men wore robes, which left one shoulder bare, and the garments of the upper classes were often richly patterned. Beards were worn, and men and women alike had long hair.

The elaborate headdresses of the Mother Goddess probably had their counter-parts in the festive attire of the richer women. The women wore a short skirt that reached up to the knee; and a girdle-a string of beads, held it. The coiffures of the women were often elaborate, and pigtails were popular, as in present-day India.  Women loved jewellery and wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, and earrings. Mirrors of bronze were very common. It appears that the ladies at Mohenjo-Daro knew the use of collyrium, face-paint and other cosmetics.

      Chanhudaro finds indicate the use of lip­sticks. Bronze razors of various types have been found.

Amusements:

Kids played with terracotta toys such as rattles, birds shaped whistle, bulls with movable heads, monkeys with movable arms, figures which ran down strings, the favorite being the baked clay cart. Dice was used in gambling, rich children played marbles of jasper and chert.  Hunting and fishing was in vogue. On a few seals, hunting of wild rhino and antelope are shown.

Religious Practices:

Except for the discovery of fire altars at Kalibangan, we have not found any cult objects, temples at any of the Harappan sites. Based on the material remains discovered at various Harappan sites we can say that the Harappan people had many features of the later Hinduism, such as worship of the Mother Goddess, Pashupati Siva, animal worship, tree-worship, etc.

The inhabitants of the Indus region thus worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals and human beings. The chief female deity was Mother Goddess. In one terracotta figurine found at Harappa, a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. Probably the image represents the goddess of earth. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her.

The most striking deity of the Harappan culture is the horned-deity of the seals.  He is depicted on three specimens, in two, seated on a small dais, and in the third on the ground; in all three his posture is cross-legged (sitting posture of a yogi). On the largest of the seals, he is surrounded by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo, and beneath his feet appear two deer. Marshall called this god Proto-Siva. Certainly the horned god has much in common with the Siva of later Hinduism, who is, in his most important aspect a fertility deity, is known as Pasupati, the Lord of Beasts.

Phallic worship was an important element of Harappa religion. Many cone-shaped objects have been found, which almost certainly formalized representation of the phallus.  The linga or phallic emblem in later Hinduism is the symbol of the god Siva.

The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees. The picture of a deity is represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of the pipal tree, which continues to be worshipped to this day. They worshipped animals and represented many of them on seals. The most important of them is the humped bull.

Burial Practices:

Cemeteries excavated at several Indus sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Ropar throws light on the burial practises of the Harappans. Three forms of burials have been found at Mohenjo-Daro, viz., complete burials, (means the burial of the whole body along with the grave goods) fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts and birds) and post-cremation burials.

          From the Lothal cemetery comes evidence of another burial type with several examples of pairs of skeletons, one male and one female in each case, buried in a single grave. Bodies were always placed in the north-south direction with the head in the north.

Economy:Agriculture

 

The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing, proficiency in various crafts and brisk trade both internal and external.

  1. Agriculture:

The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient food grains not only to feed themselves but also the town people. No hoe or ploughshare has been discovered, but the furrows discovered in the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan show that the fields were ploughed in Rajasthan in the Harappan period. The Harappans probably used the wooden ploughshare. We do not know whether men or oxen drew the plough.  Stone sickles may have been used for harvesting the crops.

Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a feature in parts of Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel or canal irrigation seems to have been absent. The Indus people produced wheat, barley, rai, peas, etc.  They produced two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley was discovered at Banawali. In addition to this, they produced sesamum, mustard, dates and varieties of leguminous plants. At Lothal and Rangpur, rice and spikelet were found embedded in clay and pottery.

          The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. Because cotton was first produced in this area, the Greeks called it Sindon, which is derived from Sindh.

Domestication of Animals:

Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale. Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps and pigs were domesticated. The Harappans favoured the humped bulls. From the very beginning, dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated.  Asses and camels were used as beasts of burden.  Camel bones are reported at Kalibangan. Evidence of horse are also reported from Surkotada.  Elephants and rhinoceros were well known to the Harappans.

Technology and Crafts:

The people of Harappa used many tools and implements of stone, but they were very well acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. The smiths made bronze by mixing tin with copper. Numerous tools and weapons recovered from the Harappan sites suggest that the bronzesmiths constituted an important group of artisans in the Harappan society.  Objects of gold are reasonably common, silver makes its earliest appearance in the Indus civilization and was relatively more common than gold. The Harappan people also used lead, arsenic, antimony and nickel.The axes, chisels, knives, spearheads, etc., were made of bronze and stone. They seem to have been produced on a mass-scale in place like Sukkur. Two short copper swords found in Mohenjodaro are of the slashing type and not cutting type.

            As for craft specialization, the towns of Chanhudaro and Lothal have yielded evidence of the presence of work­shops of bead-makers. Balakot, Lothal and Chanhudaro were centres for shell working and bangle- making. Apart from them the evidences indicate the presence of potters, stone masons, brick makers, seal cutters, traders, priests, etc. The Harappans also practised boat making. Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton. Spindle whorls were used for spinning. The potter’s wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was made glossy and shining. Most of the time it means the use of a pinkish pottery with bright red slip and standard representation of trees, birds, animals and geometric motifs, in black.

No human figure is depicted on the pottery from Mohenjo-Daro but a few pottery pieces discovered from Harappa portray a man and a child. The greatest artistic creations of the Harappans are the seals. About 2000 seals have been found, made of stealite, these seals range in size from 1 cm to 5 cm.  Two main types are seen. First, square with a carved animal and inscription and second, rectangular with an inscription only.

           Stone sculptures and terracotta figurines have been reported from various sites. Figurines made of fire-baked clay, commonly called terracotta, which were used as either toys or objects of worship. Mainly the common people used it and it represented sophisticated artistic works.

Trade:

The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is attested not only by granaries found at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal but also by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. They did not use metal money. Most probably, they carried on all exchanges through barter. In return for finished goods and possibly food grains, they procured metals from the neighbouring areas by boats and bullock-carts. Inter-regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, parts of western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (modern Iraq) and Iran. Their cities also carried commerce with Mesopotamia.

           Discovery of many Indus seals in Mesopotamia and evidence of imitation by the Harappans of some cosmetics used by the urban people of Mesopotamia suggests that some of the Harappan merchants must have resided or visited Mesopotamia.

About two dozen Indus type seals were also discovered from different cities of Mesopotamia like, Ur, Susa, Lagash, Kish and Tell Asmar. Reciprocal evidence comes from the Indus cities also-discovery of a circular button seals, which belongs to a class of Persian Gulf seals, several bun-shaped copper ingots of Mesopotamian origin and the ‘Reserved Slip Ware’ of the Mesopotamian type at Lothal. All these provide conclusive proof of trade links between the two civilisations.

The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region, and they also speak of two intermediate stations called ‘Dilmun’ (identified with Bahrain on the Persian Gulf) and Makan (Makran Coast).  Shortughai located near Badakhsan in northeast Afghanistan was one of the Harappan-trading outpost, beyond the high passes of the Hindukush.

The Harappan cities did not possess the necessary raw material for the commodities they produced and hence depended upon the products imported from distant places.

Main imports consisted of precious metals like gold (from North Karnataka), silver (probably from Afghanistan or Iran), Copper (from Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan, Baluchistan and Arabia), lead (East and South India), tin (Afghanistan and Hazaribagh in Bihar), and several semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli (Badakshan in North-East Afghanistan), turquoise (central Asia and Iran), amethyst (Maharashtra), agate (Saurashtra), jade (central Asia), and chalcedonies and carnelians (from Saurashtra and west India).

Main exports were several agricultural products and a variety of finished products such as cotton goods, carnelian beads, pottery, shell and bone inlays etc.

Weights and Measures:

 

The knowledge of script must have helped the recording of private property and accounts keeping. Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show that in weighting mostly 16 or its multiples were used; for instance, 16, 64, 160, 320 and 640. The Harappans also knew the art of measurement. The measures of length were based upon a foot of 13.2 inches and a cubit of 20.6 inches.  Several sticks inscribed with measure marks, one of these made of bronze have been discovered.

Script and Language

The Harappans invented the art of writing like the people of ancient Mesopotamia. Although the earliest specimen of Harappan script was noticed in 1853 and the complete script discovered by 1923, it has not been deciphered so far. Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappan did not write long inscriptions. Most inscriptions were recorded on seals, and contain only a few words.

Propertied people to mark and identify their private property may have used these seals. Altogether, there are about 250 to 400 pictographs, and in the form of picture, each letter stands for some sound idea or object.

The Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic since its sign represent birds, fish, varieties of the human form, etc. There are two main arguments as to the nature of the language; that it belongs to the Indo- European or even Indo-Aryan family, or that it belongs to the Dravidian family. Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues gave a hypothesis that the language was Dravidian.

Theories of the Decline of Harappan Civilization

In the absence of any written material or historical evidence, scholars have made various speculations regarding the causes for the decline of the Harappan culture. Cities like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan saw a gradual decline in urban planning. Later on some of the settlements like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa etc. were abandoned. However, in most other sites people continued to live. Some important features associated with the Harappan civilization, writing, uniform weights, pottery and architectural style disappeared.

Aryan Invasion

Wheeler believed that the Aryan invaders destroyed the Indus civilization. It has been pointed out that in the late phases of Mohenjo-Daro there are evidences of a massacre. However, it has been pointed out that Mohenjo-Daro was abandoned by about 1800 B.C., Aryans on the other hand are said to have come to India around 1500 B.C. Thus, this theory of sudden death cannot explain the decline. Several scholars support the gradual death theory.

Hydrological Changes

Raikes, a hydrologist, has set forth a theory that due to tectonic activity, the flood plains of the lower Indus river were raised which led to prolonged submergence of cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Chanhudaro and hence their abandonment. However, the cause for the decline of some of the other Indus cities like Kalibangan and Banawali seems to be not the floods but the drying up of rivers.

Ecological Changes

W.A. Fairservis have tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilization in terms of the problems of ecology. He believes that the Harappans degraded their delicate environment. A growing population of men and animals confronted by falling resources wore out the landscape, which resulted into more floods and droughts. These stresses in the end led to the collapse of the urban culture.

Cheap ‘Charity’

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Money is ever poor compensation for the physical, mental and psychological trauma suffered by the victim of an assault, more so in cases of sexual assault. It is therefore no surprise that the apex court should see insult being added to injury by the Madhya Pradesh government’s paying a miserly compensation of Rs 6,000 or 6,500 to rape victims. “Are you doing a charity? You value rape at Rs 6,500”, Justice Madan B. Lokur admonished the state government’s Standing Counsel, when sharing the Bench with Justice Deepak Gupta and dealing with a petition on the utilisation of the Nirbhaya Fund for the welfare of victims of such assault. “For Madhya Pradesh the figures are fantastic”, the court observed, “there are 1,951 victims and you are giving Rs 6000-6500 each. Is that good, commendable”; adding that “this is total insensitiveness”.

To be fair, the court came down equally heavily on the fact that as many as 24 states and union territories had not responded to its call for affidavits on their utilisation of the Fund. “It is sad that a large number of state governments are not bothered about the safety of women, in spite of all talk about gender justice…. ” It is worth noting that the Central government claimed difficulty in securing information from the states, clearly there is only lip service paid to the safety of women. A poser for Maneka Gandhi?

Compensation payments are only a small part of the story. Inept policing is another, many victims are hesitant to go to the cops fearing additional shame and pressure. The Womens’ Commissions in several states are comatose ~ Delhi is an exception, though possibly publicity-seeking ~ and traditional misogynistic mindsets still prevail even in urban areas. Sexual harassment at the workplace remains rampant, and the attitude of most politicians is negative.

The indifference of state governments, as pointed out in the Supreme Court, testifies to criminal dereliction of a basic duty. The nation appeared “shocked” at the Nirbhaya incident in the Capital a few years back. Alas that shock was short-lived and there have been several other Nirbhayas subsequently though all have not attracted media attention.

Legal action, no matter how widespread and punitive, cannot succeed in changing traditional attitudes, social action is necessary. From where will that originate? Movies on rape victims do not arouse emotions if religion, caste or community “pride” is not impacted (the furore over ‘Padmaavat’ proves that).

Though the nation is almost permanently in election mode, gender-inequality is never a vote-catching issue: a collective failure of women politicians, regardless of party affiliation. Their non-serious attitude is reflected in the state governments’ tardiness in response to the Supreme Court’s call for information. And finally, can their Lordships “fix” a compensation level high enough to coerce the administrations into effective preventive/punitive action?

India State of Forest Report 2017

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According to  India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2017, released by Union environment minister Harsh Vardhan on February 12, 2018. India’s total forest cover is 708,273 sq.km (about 21.54% of India’s total GA) and tree cover is 93,815 sq.km (about 2.85% of the total GA).Taken together, it marks an increase of about 1% Forest and tree cover in India since 2015 to 802,088 sq.km or about 24.39% of the country’s total geographical area (GA). The latest ISFR report also includes information about water bodies in forests. This is a new feature of the report. It  revealed that there has been an increase of 2,647 sq.km in the extent of water bodies in forest areas over the decade 2005-2015. According to the report, all the states and Union territories show an increase (in water bodies) except Arunachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Bihar. The ISFR report is published every two years. The 2017 report is more comprehensive than the previous one as it is based on information from 633 districts compared with 589 covered in the 2015 report.

The top five states where forest cover grew are Andhra Pradesh (by 2,141 sq.km), Karnataka (1,101 sq.km), Kerala (1,043 sq.km), Odisha (885 sq.km) and Telangana (565 sq.km), while the top five states where forest cover declined are Mizoram (by 531 sq.km), Nagaland (450 sq.km), Arunachal Pradesh (190 sq.km), Tripura (164 sq.km) and Meghalaya (116 sq.km). According to the report,  Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover (77, 414 sq. km), followed by Arunachal Pradesh (66,964 sq. km), Chhattisgarh (55,547 sq. km) Odisha (51, 345 sq. km) and Maharashtra (50,682 sq. km). Forest cover in hill districts grew by 754 sq.km, while tribal districts saw an increase of 86.89 sq.km in just the last two years, according to ISFR 2017. But, worryingly, forest cover in the northeastern region showed a decline of 630 sq.km.

India targets having 33% of its GA under forest cover. According to the report, at present 15 states and Union territories have more than 33% of their GA under forest cover. The report highlighted that about 40% of forest cover is contained in nine large patches across the country, each more than 10,000 sq.km in extent.

The report has also brought out some major concerns. Firstly among the top  states under forest and tree cover, forest and tree cover  has decreased since 2015 except Odisha. Second worrying trend is that the five states where the forest cover contracted the most are in the biodiversity rich northeastern region. This region  had witnessed a decrease in 2015 too from 2013, according to the previous report. Thirdly, it is observed from the report that the net increase in forest cover has been uneven as increase in net forest and tree cover was observed in areas less than 1,000 metre altitude, while in all other altitudinal zones small net decrease has been observed.

The report also revealed that 21,054 sq. km of non-forest area became forest area during the last two years, hinting that this may have been due to an increase in activities like plantation. However, 24,175 sq. km of forest area of different categories such as very dense forest and moderate forest turned into non-forest area due to deforestation or diversion of forest land for developmental projects.

Union environment minister said that   India ranks among the top 10 countries of the world in terms of forest area. But this fact needs to be seen in the conext of population density. None of the 9 countries in top 10 list has a population density of more than 150 persons per sq.km, compared with India’s 382 persons per sq.km. However according to  the latest FAO report, India has reported the greatest annual net gain in forest area among the top ten countries, despite finishing at 8th rank.

Allocation to  the most important budget schemes in Union Budget 2018-19

0

In the Union Budget Estimate 2018-19, most schemes have been bolstered, but some have been cut.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojna

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 7,392 croreRs 9,429 crore27.56%

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 16,900 croreRs 19,000 crore12.43%

Aimed at providing all weather road connectivity in rural areas of India to improve livelihood opportunities.

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna(PMAY)

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 29,043 croreRs 27,505 crore-5.3%

National Rural Drinking Water Mission

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 7,050 croreRs 7,000 crore-0.71%

Goal is to provide adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and other domestic needs to rural Indians.

Swachh Bharat Mission

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 19,248 croreRs 17,843 crore-7.3%

National Health Mission

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 31,292 croreRs 30,634 crore-2.1%

National Education Mission

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 29,556 croreRs 32,613 crore10.34%

National Programme of Mid Day Meal in Schools

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 10,000 croreRs 10,500 crore5%

Provides free lunches to primary and upper primary students at government schools.

Umbrella ICDS

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 19,963 croreRs 23,088 crore15.65%

Mission for Protection and Empowerment for Women

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 988 croreRs 1,366 crore38.26%

National Livelihood Mission – Ajeevika

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 4,699 croreRs 6,060 crore28.96%

Jobs and Skill Development

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,905 croreRs 5,071 crore74.56%

Aimed at training 40 crore Indians in different skills by 2022.

Environment, Forestry and Wildlife

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 975 croreRs 1,019 crore4.51%

Urban Rejuvenation Mission: AMRUT and Smart Cities Mission

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 8,999 croreRs 12,169 crore35.23%

Modernisation of Police Forces

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,577 croreRs 3,157 crore22.51%

Infrastructure Facilities for Judiciary

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 629 croreRs 630 crore0.16%

Provides funding for construction of court buildings and residential complexes for judges.

Border Area Development Programme

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,100 croreRs 771 crore-29.91%

Scheme to meet special developmental needs of people living in border areas.

Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Rurban Mission

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 600 croreRs 1,200 crore100%

Aimed at stimulating local economic development, enhancing basic services and creating well planned Rurban clusters.

Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojna Major Central Sector Schemes

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 471 croreRs 2,000 crore324.63%

Crop Insurance Scheme

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 10,698 croreRs 13,000 crore21.52%

Provides insurance cover to food crops, oilseeds and commercial crops with known yielding patters.

Interest Subsidy for Short Term Credit to Farmers

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 14,750 croreRs 15,000 crore1.69%

Crop Science

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 400 croreRs 800 crore100%

Agricultural Universities and Institutions

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 658 croreRs 685 crore4.1%

Regional Connectivity Scheme

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 200 croreRs 1,014 crore407%

Interest Equalisation Scheme (Department of Commerce)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,000 croreRs 2,500 crore25%

National Industrial Corridor Development and Implementation Trust (NICDIT)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 797 croreRs 1,097 crore37.64%

Green Revolution

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 11,185 croreRs 13,909 crore24.35%

Aimed at increasing agricultural productivity.

White Revolution

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,633 croreRs 2,220 crore35.95%

Aimed at increasing milk and dairy production in India.

Blue Revolution

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 302 croreRs 643 crore112.91%

Scheme for integrated development and management of fisheries.

Amended Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme(ATUFS)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,956 croreRs 2,300 crore17.59%

Biotechnology Research and Development

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,252 croreRs 1,350 crore7.83%

Border Infrastructure and Management

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,040 croreRs 1,750 crore-14.22%

Capacity Building- Panchayat Sashaktikaran Abhiyaan (PSA) / Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 638 croreRs 721 crore13.01%

Central Silk Board

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 600 croreRs 501 crore-16.5%

Compensation to Service Providers for creation and augmentation of telecom infrastructure-Bharatnet

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 7,000 croreRs 10,000 crore42.86%

Credit Support Programme

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,802 croreRs 700 crore-75.02%

Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojna

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 5,400 croreRs 3,800 crore-29.63%

Aimed at strengthening Irural agriculture by providing increasing rural electrification among other steps.

Education of Minorities girl child

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 661 croreRs 860 crore30.11%

Employees Pension Scheme, 1995

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 5,111 croreRs 4,900 crore-4.13%

Equity Capital to Micro Units Development Refinance Agency (MUDRA Bank)

NEW SCHEME

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
N/ARs 600 croreN/A

Exhibition-Cum-Convention Centre, Dwarka

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 500 croreRs 700 crore40%

Green Energy Corridors – Grid Interactive Renewable Power

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 500 croreRs 600 crore20%

Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 250 croreRs 2,750 crore1000%

Innovation, Technology Development and Deployment

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 670 croreRs 720 crore7.46%

Integrated Development of Tourist Circuits around specific themes (Swadesh Darshan) & PRASAD

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,050 croreRs 1,250 crore19.05%

Integrated Power Development Scheme

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 4,372 croreRs 4,935 crore12.88%

Goal is to strengthen the sub-transmission and distribution system including provisioning of solar panels and IT enablement of distribution sector.

Khelo India

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 350 croreRs 520 crore48.57%

Aimed at developing sports infrastructure in both rural and urban areas, identifying and nurturing talent.

LPG Connection to Poor Households

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,252 croreRs 3,200 crore42.1%

Provides LPG at subsidized rates.

Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLAD)

UNCHANGED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 3,950 croreRs 3,950 crore0%

Metro Projects & MRTS

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 18,000 croreRs 15,000 crore-16.67%

National River Conservation Programme

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 723 croreRs 770 crore6.5%

National Seismic Programme

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 10 croreRs 1,300 crore12900%

North Eastern Industrial and Investment Promotion Policy (NEIPP)

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 783 croreRs 528 crore-32.57%

Optical Fibre Cable based network for Defence Services

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 3,755 croreRs 4,500 crore19.84%

Pardhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 3,175 croreRs 3,825 crore20.47%

Phulpur Dhamra Haldia Pipeline Project

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 400 croreRs 1,674 crore318.5%

Police Infrastructure

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 4,490 croreRs 4,750 crore5.79%

Aimed at bolstering state police forces by building secure police stations, providing better training and equipping forces with modern weaponry.

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana

NEW SCHEME

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
N/ARs 1,313 croreN/A

Price Stabilisation Fund

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 3,500 croreRs 1,500 crore-57.14%

Seeks to support market interventions for price control of perishable agri-horticultural commodities like onion, potato etc.

Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,195 croreRs 1,801 crore50.71%

Procurement of Cotton by Cotton Corporation under Price Support Scheme

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 303 croreRs 924 crore204.95%

Promotion of Digital payment

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 25 croreRs 596 crore2284%

Promotion of Electronics and IT HW Manufacturing (MSIPS, EDF and Manufacturing Clusters)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 485 croreRs 864 crore78.14%

Refund of Central and Integrated GST to Industrial Units in North Eastern Region and Himalayan States

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,440 croreRs 1,500 crore4.17%

Remission of State Levies (ROSL)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,855 croreRs 2,164 crore16.66%

Sagarmala

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 480 croreRs 600 crore25%

Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (Rural)- Saubhagya

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,550 croreRs 2,750 crore77.42%

Science and Technology Institutional and Human Capacity Building

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,008 croreRs 1,109 crore10.02%

Solar Power – Grid Interactive Renewable Power

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,117 croreRs 2,045 crore83.08%

Solar Power – Off-Grid/Distributed and Decentralized Renewable Power

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 985 croreRs 849 crore-13.81%

Strengthening of Power Systems including Power Sector Development Fund

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,767 croreRs 1,311 crore-25.81%

Wind Power – Grid Interactive Renewable Power

UNCHANGED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 750 croreRs 750 crore0%

Core of the Core Schemes

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Program

UNCHANGED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 55,000 croreRs 55,000 crore0%

National Social Assistance Program

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 8,745 croreRs 9,975 crore14.07%

Umbrella Programme for Development of Minorities

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 4,075 croreRs 4,580 crore12.39%

Umbrella Programme for Development of Other Vulnerable Groups

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 1,630 croreRs 2,287 crore40.31%

Umbrella Programme for Development of Scheduled Tribes

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 3,512 croreRs 3,806 crore8.37%

Umbrella Scheme for Development of Schedule Castes

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 5,114 croreRs 5,183 crore1.35%

National AIDS and STD Control Programme

DECREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,163 croreRs 2,100 crore-2.91%

Goal is to reduce STD cases and prevent both short and long term morbidity due to STDs.

National Capital Region Transport Corporation

NEW SCHEME

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
N/ARs 659 croreN/A

National Ganga Plan and Ghat Works

UNCHANGED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 2,300 croreRs 2,300 crore0%

National Highways Authority of India including Road Works

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 60,671 croreRs 70,544 crore16.27%

National Manufacturing Competitiveness Programme (NMCP)

INCREASED

Revised Estimate, 2017-18Budget Estimate, 2018-19Change
Rs 461 croreRs 1,006 crore118.22%

 

 

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